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Enkidu Prior to Being Introduced to Civilized Arts Had Never Had Bread and Honey? And or

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Ballsy poem from Mesopotamia

Epic of Gilgamesh
British Museum Flood Tablet.jpg

The Deluge tablet of the Gilgamesh epic in Akkadian
Written c.  2100–1200 BC [1]
Country Mesopotamia
Language Akkadian
Media blazon Clay tablet

The Epic of Gilgamesh ()[2] is an epic poem from ancient Mesopotamia, regarded as the earliest surviving notable literature and the second oldest religious text, after the Pyramid Texts. The literary history of Gilgamesh begins with five Sumerian poems about Bilgamesh (Sumerian for "Gilgamesh"), rex of Uruk, dating from the 3rd Dynasty of Ur (c.  2100 BC).[1] These independent stories were later used as source fabric for a combined epic in Akkadian. The first surviving version of this combined epic, known every bit the "Onetime Babylonian" version, dates back to the 18th century BC and is titled later its incipit, Shūtur eli sharrī ("Surpassing All Other Kings"). But a few tablets of it have survived. The later Standard Babylonian version compiled by Sîn-lēqi-unninni dates from the 13th to the tenth centuries BC and bears the incipit Sha naqba īmuru [note 1] ("He who Saw the Abyss", in modern terms: "He who Sees the Unknown"). Approximately 2-thirds of this longer, twelve-tablet version have been recovered. Some of the best copies were discovered in the library ruins of the 7th-century BC Assyrian king Ashurbanipal.

The first half of the story discusses Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, and Enkidu, a wild man created by the gods to stop Gilgamesh from oppressing the people of Uruk. After Enkidu becomes civilized through sexual initiation with a prostitute, he travels to Uruk, where he challenges Gilgamesh to a test of strength. Gilgamesh wins the contest; nonetheless, the two become friends. Together, they make a six-day journeying to the legendary Cedar Forest, where they plan to slay the Guardian, Humbaba the Terrible, and cut down the sacred Cedar.[4] The goddess Ishtar sends the Balderdash of Heaven to punish Gilgamesh for spurning her advances. Gilgamesh and Enkidu impale the Bull of Heaven after which the gods determine to sentence Enkidu to decease and impale him.

In the second one-half of the ballsy, distress over Enkidu'due south expiry causes Gilgamesh to undertake a long and perilous journeying to detect the hugger-mugger of eternal life. He somewhen learns that "Life, which you look for, you will never find. For when the gods created man, they let death exist his share, and life withheld in their own hands".[5] [six] Nevertheless, because of his great building projects, his account of Siduri's communication, and what the immortal man Utnapishtim told him about the Great Flood, Gilgamesh's fame survived well after his death with expanding interest in the Gilgamesh story which has been translated into many languages and is featured in works of popular fiction.

The ballsy is regarded as a foundational work in the tradition of heroic sagas, with Gilgamesh forming the prototype for afterwards heroes similar Heracles (Hercules), and the epic itself serving every bit an influence for the Homeric epics.[7]

History [edit]

Ancient Assyrian statue currently in the Louvre, possibly representing Gilgamesh

Singled-out sources exist from over a 2000-yr timeframe. The primeval Sumerian poems are now generally considered to be distinct stories, rather than parts of a single epic.[8] They date from as early on as the Third Dynasty of Ur (c.  2100 BC).[ix] The One-time Babylonian tablets (c.  1800 BC),[8] are the earliest surviving tablets for a unmarried Epic of Gilgamesh narrative.[x] The older One-time Babylonian tablets and later Akkadian version are of import sources for modern translations, with the before texts mainly used to fill in gaps (lacunae) in the later texts. Although several revised versions based on new discoveries have been published, the epic remains incomplete.[xi] Analysis of the Old Babylonian text has been used to reconstruct possible earlier forms of the epic.[12] The nigh contempo Akkadian version, also referred to as the Standard Babylonian version, consists of twelve tablets and was edited by Sîn-lēqi-unninni,[thirteen] who is idea to accept lived former between 1300 BC and m BC.[14]

... this discovery is evidently destined to excite a lively controversy. For the present the orthodox people are in not bad delight, and are very much prepossessed by the corroboration which information technology affords to Biblical history. It is possible, even so, as has been pointed out, that the Chaldean inscription, if genuine, may be regarded as a confirmation of the statement that there are various traditions of the deluge apart from the Biblical i, which is maybe legendary similar the rest

The New York Times, front page, 1872[xv]

Enkidu, Gilgamesh's friend. From Ur, Republic of iraq, 2027–1763 BCE. Iraq Museum

Some 15,000 fragments of Assyrian cuneiform tablets were discovered in the Library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh by Austen Henry Layard, his assistant Hormuzd Rassam, and Westward. M. Loftus in the early 1850s.[xvi] Late in the following decade, the British Museum hired George Smith to written report these; in 1872, Smith read translated fragments before the Lodge of Biblical Archaeology,[17] and in 1875 and 1876 he published fuller translations,[18] the latter of which was published as The Chaldaean Account of Genesis.[xvi] The central graphic symbol of Gilgamesh was initially reintroduced to the earth as "Izdubar", before the cuneiform logographs in his name could be pronounced accurately.[16] [xix] In 1891, Paul Haupt nerveless the cuneiform text, and nine years later, Peter Jensen provided a comprehensive edition; R. Campbell Thompson updated both of their work in 1930. Over the next two decades, Samuel Noah Kramer reassembled the Sumerian poems.[18]

In 1998, American Assyriologist Theodore Kwasman discovered a piece believed to have contained the first lines of the epic in the storeroom of the British Museum; the fragment, found in 1878 and dated to between 600 BC and 100 BC, had remained unexamined past experts for more than a century since its recovery.[20] The fragment read "He who saw all, who was the foundation of the land, who knew (everything), was wise in all matters: Gilgamesh."[21] The discovery of artifacts (c.  2600 BC) associated with Enmebaragesi of Kish, mentioned in the legends as the father of one of Gilgamesh's adversaries, has lent credibility to the historical existence of Gilgamesh.[22]

In the early on 2000s, the Gilgamesh Dream Tablet was imported illegally into the Usa. Co-ordinate to the U.s. Department of Justice, the tablet was encrusted with dirt and unreadable when it was purchased by a US antiquities dealer in 2003. The tablet was sold by an unnamed antiques dealer in 2007 with a letter falsely stating that it had been inside a box of aboriginal statuary fragments purchased in a 1981 auction.[23]

In 2014, Hobby Foyer privately purchased the tablet for display at the Museum of the Bible in Washington, D.C.[23] [24]

In 2019, the Gilgamesh Dream Tablet was seized by US officials and was returned to Republic of iraq in September 2021.[25] [26]

Versions [edit]

From the diverse sources found, two chief versions of the ballsy have been partially reconstructed: the Standard Babylonian version, or He who saw the deep, and the Old Babylonian version, or Surpassing all other kings. Five before Sumerian poems about Gilgamesh take been partially recovered, some with primitive versions of specific episodes in the Babylonian version, others with unrelated stories.

Standard Babylonian version [edit]

The Standard Babylonian version was discovered by Hormuzd Rassam in the library of Ashurbanipal in Nineveh in 1853. "Standard Babylonian" refers to a literary manner that was used for literary purposes. This version was compiled by Sin-liqe-unninni old between 1300 and 1000 BC from earlier texts.[14] [27] I impact that Sin-liqe-unninni brought to the work was to bring the issue of mortality to the foreground, thus making it possible for the grapheme to move from being an "charlatan to a wise human."[27] According to Lins Brandão, the standard version tin be seen in this sense as sapiential literature, common in the Middle East.[28] [29]

The Standard Babylonian version has different opening words, or incipit, from the older version. The older version begins with the words "Surpassing all other kings", while the Standard Babylonian version has "He who saw the deep" (ša naqba īmuru), "deep" referring to the mysteries of the data brought dorsum by Gilgamesh from his meeting with Uta-Napishti (Utnapishtim) well-nigh Ea, the fountain of wisdom.[xi] [30] Gilgamesh was given knowledge of how to worship the gods, why death was ordained for human beings, what makes a good rex, and how to live a skillful life. The story of Utnapishtim, the hero of the flood myth, tin also exist found in the Babylonian epic of Atra-Hasis.[31] [32] The Standard version is also known every bit iškar Gilgāmeš, "Serial of Gilgamesh".[27]

The twelfth tablet is a sequel to the original 11, and was probably appended at a later date.[33] It bears fiddling relation to the well-crafted eleven-tablet epic; the lines at the offset of the commencement tablet are quoted at the end of the 11th tablet, giving it circularity and finality. Tablet 12 is a well-nigh copy of an earlier Sumerian tale, a prequel, in which Gilgamesh sends Enkidu to call up some objects of his from the Underworld, and he returns in the form of a spirit to relate the nature of the Underworld to Gilgamesh.

In terms of form, the poetic conventions followed in the Standard Babylonian version appear to be inconsistent and are notwithstanding controversial among scholars. There is, however, extensive utilise of parallelism across sets of two or three adjacent lines, much like in the Hebrew Psalms.

Genre [edit]

When it was discovered in the 19th century, the story of Gilgamesh was classified equally a Greek ballsy, a genre known in Europe, even though it predates the Greek culture that spawned epics,[34] specifically, when Herodotus referred to the works of Homer in this way.[35] When Alfred Jeremias translated the text, he insisted on the relationship to Genesis by giving the title "Izdubar-Nimrod" and by recognizing the genre as that of Greek heroic verse. Although the equalization to Nimrod was dropped, the view of "Greek epic" was retained.[19] Martin Litchfield West, in 1966, in the preface to his edition of Hesiod, recognized the proximity of the Greeks to the middle eastern center of convergence, "greek literature is a Near East literature."[36] One divergence between the Greek ballsy poems and Gilgamesh would exist the fact that the Greek heroes acted in the context of war, while Gilgamesh acted in isolation (with the exception of Enkidu's brief existence) - and could equal Heracles.[37]

Considering how the text would be viewed from the standpoint of its time is tricky, as George Smith acknowledges that there is no "Sumerian or Akkadian word for myth or heroic narrative, just as in that location is no aboriginal recognition of poetic narrative as a genre."[38] Lins Brandão 2019 recognizes that the prologue of "He who Saw the Abyss" recalls the inspiration of the Greek Muses, even though there is no god's aid here.[39] It is also made explicit that Gilgamesh rose to the rank of an "aboriginal wise man" (antedeluvian).[twoscore] Lins Brandão continues, noting how the poem would take been "put on a stele" ("narû"), that at first "narû" could be seen equally the genre of the poem,[40] taking into consideration that the reader (or scribe) would accept to laissez passer the text on,[41] without omitting or calculation anything.[42] The prologue also implies that Gilgamesh narrated his story to a copyist, thus being a kind of "autobiography in third person".[43]

Content of the Standard Babylonian version tablets [edit]

This summary is based on Andrew George's translation.[eleven]

Tablet ane [edit]

The story introduces Gilgamesh, male monarch of Uruk. Gilgamesh, two-thirds god and one-third man, is oppressing his people, who cry out to the gods for help. For the immature women of Uruk this oppression takes the class of a droit du seigneur, or "lord'due south right", to sleep with brides on their wedding night. For the young men (the tablet is damaged at this betoken) it is conjectured that Gilgamesh exhausts them through games, tests of forcefulness, or perchance forced labour on building projects. The gods answer to the people's pleas by creating an equal to Gilgamesh who will exist able to stop his oppression. This is the primitive man, Enkidu, who is covered in pilus and lives in the wild with the animals. He is spotted by a trapper, whose livelihood is existence ruined because Enkidu is uprooting his traps. The trapper tells the sun-god Shamash about the human, and it is arranged for Enkidu to be seduced past Shamhat, a temple prostitute, his first step towards beingness tamed. After six days and seven nights (or two weeks, co-ordinate to more recent scholarship[44]) of lovemaking and teaching Enkidu well-nigh the means of civilization, she takes Enkidu to a shepherd's military camp to larn how to exist civilized. Gilgamesh, meanwhile, has been having dreams about the imminent arrival of a beloved new companion and asks his mother, Ninsun, to help interpret these dreams.

Tablet two [edit]

Shamhat brings Enkidu to the shepherds' campsite, where he is introduced to a human diet and becomes the dark watchman. Learning from a passing stranger well-nigh Gilgamesh'southward treatment of new brides, Enkidu is incensed and travels to Uruk to arbitrate at a wedding ceremony. When Gilgamesh attempts to visit the wedding bedchamber, Enkidu blocks his way, and they fight. Afterwards a violent battle, Enkidu acknowledges Gilgamesh's superior strength and they become friends. Gilgamesh proposes a journey to the Cedar Wood to slay the monstrous demi-god Humbaba in order to proceeds fame and renown. Despite warnings from Enkidu and the council of elders, Gilgamesh is not deterred.

Tablet three [edit]

The elders give Gilgamesh communication for his journeying. Gilgamesh visits his mother, the goddess Ninsun, who seeks the support and protection of the sun-god Shamash for their adventure. Ninsun adopts Enkidu as her son, and Gilgamesh leaves instructions for the governance of Uruk in his absence.

Tablet iv [edit]

The second dream of Gilgamesh on the journey to the Forest of Cedar. Ballsy of Gilgamesh tablet from Hattusa, Turkey. 13th century BCE. Neues Museum, Frg

Gilgamesh and Enkidu journey to the Cedar Forest. Every few days they camp on a mountain, and perform a dream ritual. Gilgamesh has five terrifying dreams most falling mountains, thunderstorms, wild bulls, and a thunderbird that breathes fire. Despite similarities betwixt his dream figures and earlier descriptions of Humbaba, Enkidu interprets these dreams equally proficient omens, and denies that the frightening images stand for the wood guardian. As they approach the cedar mount, they hear Humbaba bellowing, and have to encourage each other non to be afraid.

Tablet five [edit]

Tablet V of the Epic of Gilgamesh

Reverse side of the newly discovered tablet 5 of the Epic of Gilgamesh. It dates dorsum to the erstwhile Babylonian catamenia, 2003–1595 BC, and is currently housed in the Sulaymaniyah Museum, Iraq

The heroes enter the cedar woods. Humbaba, the guardian of the Cedar Forest, insults and threatens them. He accuses Enkidu of betrayal, and vows to disembowel Gilgamesh and feed his flesh to the birds. Gilgamesh is agape, but with some encouraging words from Enkidu the battle commences. The mountains convulse with the tumult and the heaven turns blackness. The god Shamash sends 13 winds to bind Humbaba, and he is captured. Humbaba pleads for his life, and Gilgamesh pities him. He offers to make Gilgamesh king of the wood, to cut the trees for him, and to be his slave. Enkidu, however, argues that Gilgamesh should kill Humbaba to establish his reputation forever. Humbaba curses them both and Gilgamesh dispatches him with a blow to the neck, every bit well as killing his seven sons.[44] The two heroes cut down many cedars, including a gigantic tree that Enkidu plans to mode into a gate for the temple of Enlil. They build a raft and return abode along the Euphrates with the giant tree and (possibly) the caput of Humbaba.

Tablet six [edit]

Gilgamesh rejects the advances of the goddess Ishtar because of her mistreatment of previous lovers like Dumuzi. Ishtar asks her father Anu to send the Balderdash of Heaven to avenge her. When Anu rejects her complaints, Ishtar threatens to raise the expressionless who will "outnumber the living" and "devour them". Anu states that if he gives her the Bull of Heaven, Uruk volition face up 7 years of dearth. Ishtar provides him with provisions for 7 years in substitution for the balderdash. Ishtar leads the Bull of Heaven to Uruk, and information technology causes widespread devastation. It lowers the level of the Euphrates river, and dries up the marshes. It opens upwardly huge pits that swallow 300 men. Without any divine assist, Enkidu and Gilgamesh assail and slay it, and offer up its heart to Shamash. When Ishtar cries out, Enkidu hurls 1 of the hindquarters of the balderdash at her. The city of Uruk celebrates, but Enkidu has an ominous dream about his future failure.

Tablet seven [edit]

In Enkidu's dream, the gods decide that one of the heroes must die because they killed Humbaba and Gugalanna. Despite the protestations of Shamash, Enkidu is marked for death. Enkidu curses the great door he has fashioned for Enlil'due south temple. He also curses the trapper and Shamhat for removing him from the wild. Shamash reminds Enkidu of how Shamhat fed and clothed him, and introduced him to Gilgamesh. Shamash tells him that Gilgamesh volition bequeath great honors upon him at his funeral, and volition wander into the wild consumed with grief. Enkidu regrets his curses and blesses Shamhat instead. In a second dream, however, he sees himself being taken captive to the Netherworld by a terrifying Angel of Expiry. The underworld is a "house of dust" and darkness whose inhabitants eat clay, and are clothed in bird feathers, supervised by terrifying beings. For 12 days, Enkidu's condition worsens. Finally, after a lament that he could not meet a heroic decease in boxing, he dies. In a famous line from the epic, Gilgamesh clings to Enkidu's body and denies that he has died until a maggot drops from the corpse'south nose.

Tablet 8 [edit]

Gilgamesh delivers a lament for Enkidu, in which he calls upon mountains, forests, fields, rivers, wild animals, and all of Uruk to mourn for his friend. Recalling their adventures together, Gilgamesh tears at his pilus and dress in grief. He commissions a funerary statue, and provides grave gifts from his treasury to ensure that Enkidu has a favourable reception in the realm of the dead. A slap-up banquet is held where the treasures are offered to the gods of the Netherworld. Just earlier a suspension in the text there is a suggestion that a river is being dammed, indicating a burial in a river bed, every bit in the respective Sumerian poem, The Expiry of Gilgamesh.

Tablet nine [edit]

Tablet ix opens with Gilgamesh roaming the wild wearing animal skins, grieving for Enkidu. Having at present become fearful of his ain death, he decides to seek Utnapishtim ("the Faraway"), and learn the secret of eternal life. Amid the few survivors of the Bully Alluvion, Utnapishtim and his married woman are the just humans to have been granted immortality by the gods. Gilgamesh crosses a mount pass at dark and encounters a pride of lions. Before sleeping he prays for protection to the moon god Sin. And then, waking from an encouraging dream, he kills the lions and uses their skins for clothing. Later on a long and perilous journey, Gilgamesh arrives at the twin peaks of Mount Mashu at the end of the earth. He comes across a tunnel, which no homo has ever entered, guarded by two scorpion monsters, who announced to be a married couple. The husband tries to dissuade Gilgamesh from passing, but the wife intervenes, expresses sympathy for Gilgamesh, and (according to the verse form's editor Benjamin Foster) allows his passage.[45] He passes under the mountains along the Route of the Sun. In consummate darkness he follows the road for 12 "double hours", managing to complete the trip earlier the Sun catches upwardly with him. He arrives at the Garden of the gods, a paradise full of jewel-laden trees.

Tablet ten [edit]

Gilgamesh meets alewife Siduri, who assumes that he is a murderer or thief because of his disheveled appearance. Gilgamesh tells her about the purpose of his journeying. She attempts to dissuade him from his quest, but sends him to Urshanabi the ferryman, who will help him cross the sea to Utnapishtim. Gilgamesh, out of spontaneous rage, destroys the rock charms that Urshanabi keeps with him. He tells him his story, but when he asks for his help, Urshanabi informs him that he has just destroyed the objects that tin assist them cross the Waters of Decease, which are deadly to the touch. Urshanabi instructs Gilgamesh to cut down 120 copse and fashion them into punting poles. When they reach the island where Utnapishtim lives, Gilgamesh recounts his story, asking him for his assist. Utnapishtim reprimands him, declaring that fighting the mutual fate of humans is futile and diminishes life's joys.

Tablet xi [edit]

George Smith transliterated and read the "Babylonian Overflowing Story" of Tablet XI

Gilgamesh observes that Utnapishtim seems no different from himself, and asks him how he obtained his immortality. Utnapishtim explains that the gods decided to transport a great flood. To salvage Utnapishtim the god Enki told him to build a boat. He gave him precise dimensions, and it was sealed with pitch and bitumen. His entire family went aboard together with his craftsmen and "all the animals of the field". A violent storm then arose which caused the terrified gods to retreat to the heavens. Ishtar lamented the wholesale devastation of humanity, and the other gods wept abreast her. The storm lasted vi days and nights, after which "all the human beings turned to clay". Utnapishtim weeps when he sees the devastation. His gunkhole lodges on a mount, and he releases a dove, a eat, and a raven. When the raven fails to return, he opens the ark and frees its inhabitants. Utnapishtim offers a sacrifice to the gods, who smell the sweet savor and gather around. Ishtar vows that just as she will never forget the brilliant necklace that hangs around her cervix, she will always remember this time. When Enlil arrives, angry that in that location are survivors, she condemns him for instigating the overflowing. Enki also castigates him for sending a disproportionate punishment. Enlil blesses Utnapishtim and his wife, and rewards them with eternal life. This account largely matches the flood story that concludes the Ballsy of Atra-Hasis .[46] [32]

The main point seems to exist that when Enlil granted eternal life it was a unique gift. As if to demonstrate this point, Utnapishtim challenges Gilgamesh to stay awake for six days and 7 nights. Gilgamesh falls asleep, and Utnapishtim instructs his wife to bake a loaf of bread on each of the days he is comatose, so that he cannot deny his failure to keep awake. Gilgamesh, who is seeking to overcome expiry, cannot even conquer slumber. After instructing Urshanabi, the ferryman, to launder Gilgamesh and clothe him in royal robes, they depart for Uruk. As they are leaving, Utnapishtim'due south married woman asks her husband to offering a parting souvenir. Utnapishtim tells Gilgamesh that at the bottom of the sea at that place lives a boxthorn-like plant that volition make him young again. Gilgamesh, past bounden stones to his anxiety so he can walk on the bottom, manages to obtain the plant. Gilgamesh proposes to investigate if the plant has the hypothesized rejuvenation power by testing it on an old human being once he returns to Uruk.[47] When Gilgamesh stops to breast-stroke, it is stolen by a serpent, who sheds its skin as information technology departs. Gilgamesh weeps at the futility of his efforts, because he has now lost all risk of immortality. He returns to Uruk, where the sight of its massive walls prompts him to praise this indelible work to Urshanabi.

Tablet twelve [edit]

This tablet is mainly an Akkadian translation of an earlier Sumerian poem, "Gilgamesh and the Netherworld" (besides known as "Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld" and variants), although it has been suggested that it is derived from an unknown version of that story.[48] The contents of this concluding tablet are inconsistent with previous ones: Enkidu is still alive, despite having died earlier in the epic. Because of this, its lack of integration with the other tablets, and the fact that it is virtually a re-create of an earlier version, information technology has been referred to as an 'inorganic appendage' to the ballsy.[49] Alternatively, it has been suggested that "its purpose, though crudely handled, is to explain to Gilgamesh (and the reader) the various fates of the dead in the Afterlife" and in "an bad-mannered endeavour to bring closure",[fifty] information technology both connects the Gilgamesh of the epic with the Gilgamesh who is the Male monarch of the Netherworld,[51] and is "a dramatic capstone whereby the twelve-tablet epic ends on 1 and the same theme, that of "seeing" (= understanding, discovery, etc.), with which it began."[52]

Gilgamesh complains to Enkidu that various of his possessions (the tablet is unclear exactly what – different translations include a drum and a ball) accept fallen into the underworld. Enkidu offers to bring them back. Delighted, Gilgamesh tells Enkidu what he must and must not exercise in the underworld if he is to return. Enkidu does everything which he was told not to do. The underworld keeps him. Gilgamesh prays to the gods to requite him back his friend. Enlil and Suen don't reply, but Enki and Shamash decide to aid. Shamash makes a crevice in the earth, and Enkidu'southward ghost jumps out of information technology. The tablet ends with Gilgamesh questioning Enkidu virtually what he has seen in the underworld.

Old Babylonian versions [edit]

This version of the ballsy, chosen in some fragments Surpassing all other kings, is composed of tablets and fragments from diverse origins and states of conservation.[53] It remains incomplete in its bulk, with several tablets missing and big lacunae in those institute. They are named after their electric current location or the place where they were found.

Pennsylvania tablet [edit]

Surpassing all other kings Tablet Ii, greatly correlates with tablets I–Ii of the Standard Babylonian version. Gilgamesh tells his mother Ninsun about two dreams he had. His female parent explains that they hateful that a new companion volition soon get in at Uruk. In the meanwhile the wild Enkidu and the priestess (here called Shamkatum) have sex. She tames him in company of the shepherds by offering him bread and beer. Enkidu helps the shepherds by guarding the sheep. They travel to Uruk to face Gilgamesh and stop his abuses. Enkidu and Gilgamesh battle simply Gilgamesh breaks off the fight. Enkidu praises Gilgamesh.

Yale tablet [edit]

Surpassing all other kings Tablet III, partially matches tablets Ii–Iii of the Standard Babylonian version. For reasons unknown (the tablet is partially broken) Enkidu is in a deplorable mood. In order to cheer him upwards Gilgamesh suggests going to the Pino Forest to cutting down trees and kill Humbaba (known here as Huwawa). Enkidu protests, as he knows Huwawa and is aware of his power. Gilgamesh talks Enkidu into it with some words of encouragement, but Enkidu remains reluctant. They prepare, and call for the elders. The elders also protest, but after Gilgamesh talks to them, they agree to let him get. Later Gilgamesh asks his god (Shamash) for protection, and both he and Enkidu equip themselves, they leave with the elders' blessing and counsel.

Philadelphia fragment [edit]

Possibly some other version of the contents of the Yale Tablet, practically irrecoverable.

Nippur school tablet [edit]

In the journeying to the cedar forest and Huwawa, Enkidu interprets one of Gilgamesh's dreams.

Tell Harmal tablets [edit]

Fragments from two different versions/tablets tell how Enkidu interprets ane of Gilgamesh'due south dreams on the mode to the Woods of Cedar, and their conversation when entering the forest.

Ishchali tablet [edit]

After defeating Huwawa, Gilgamesh refrains from slaying him, and urges Enkidu to chase Huwawa's "seven auras". Enkidu convinces him to smite their enemy. Afterwards killing Huwawa and the auras, they chop downwardly function of the forest and notice the gods' hugger-mugger dwelling. The rest of the tablet is cleaved.

The auras are not referred to in the Standard Babylonian version, just are in one of the Sumerian poems.

Partial fragment in Baghdad [edit]

Partially overlapping the felling of the trees from the Ishchali tablet.

Sippar tablet [edit]

Partially overlapping the Standard Babylonian version tablets Ix–Ten. Gilgamesh mourns the death of Enkidu wandering in his quest for immortality. Gilgamesh argues with Shamash about the futility of his quest. After a lacuna, Gilgamesh talks to Siduri about his quest and his journey to meet Utnapishtim (hither called Uta-na'ishtim). Siduri attempts to dissuade Gilgamesh in his quest for immortality, urging him to be content with the simple pleasures of life.[v] [54] Afterwards i more than lacuna, Gilgamesh smashes the "rock ones" and talks to the ferryman Urshanabi (here chosen Sur-sunabu). Afterward a short give-and-take, Sur-sunabu asks him to carve 300 oars and then that they may cross the waters of death without needing the "rock ones". The residual of the tablet is missing.

The text on the Sometime Babylonian Meissner fragment (the larger surviving fragment of the Sippar tablet) has been used to reconstruct possible earlier forms of the Epic of Gilgamesh, and information technology has been suggested that a "prior form of the story – earlier even than that preserved on the Old Babylonian fragment – may well have ended with Siduri sending Gilgamesh back to Uruk..." and "Utnapistim was not originally part of the tale."[55]

Sumerian poems [edit]

In that location are five extant Gilgamesh stories in the grade of older poems in Sumerian.[56] These probably circulated independently, rather than being in the grade of a unified ballsy. Some of the names of the main characters in these poems differ slightly from later Akkadian names; for example, "Bilgamesh" is written instead of "Gilgamesh", and there are some differences in the underlying stories such equally the fact that Enkidu is Gilgamesh's servant in the Sumerian version:

  1. The lord to the Living I's Mountain and Ho, hurrah! correspond to the Cedar Forest episode (Standard Babylonian version tablets 2–V). Gilgamesh and Enkidu travel with other men to the Wood of Cedar. There, trapped past Huwawa, Gilgamesh tricks him (with Enkidu's assistance in i of the versions) into giving upwards his auras, thus losing his power.
  2. Hero in battle corresponds to the Bull of Heaven episode (Standard Babylonian version tablet Half-dozen) in the Akkadian version. The Bull's voracious ambition causes drought and hardship in the land while Gilgamesh feasts. Lugalbanda convinces him to face up the animate being and fights it aslope Enkidu.
  3. The envoys of Akka has no corresponding episode in the ballsy, only the themes of whether to bear witness mercy to captives, and counsel from the urban center elders, as well occur in the Standard Babylonian version of the Humbaba story. In the poem, Uruk faces a siege from a Kish army led past King Akka, whom Gilgamesh defeats and forgives.[57]
  4. In those days, in those far-off days, otherwise known every bit Gilgamesh, Enkidu, and the Netherworld, is the source for the Akkadian translation included as tablet XII in the Standard Babylonian version, telling of Enkidu's journey to the Netherworld. It is also the principal source of data for the Sumerian cosmos myth and the story of "Inanna and the Huluppu Tree".[58]
  5. The keen wild bull is lying down, a poem almost Gilgamesh'south decease, burying and consecration every bit a semigod, reigning and giving sentence over the dead. After dreaming of how the gods decide his fate after death, Gilgamesh takes counsel, prepares his funeral and offers gifts to the gods. Once deceased, he is buried nether the Euphrates, taken off its course and afterward returned to it.

Translations [edit]

The kickoff direct Arabic translation from the original tablets was published in the 1960s by Iraqi archaeologist Taha Baqir.[59]

The definitive modern translation is a two-volume disquisitional work by Andrew George, published by Oxford University Printing in 2003. A book review by Cambridge scholar Eleanor Robson claims that George'due south is the most significant critical work on Gilgamesh in the last 70 years.[60] George discusses the state of the surviving cloth, and provides a tablet-by-tablet exegesis, with a dual linguistic communication side-by-side translation.

In 2004, Stephen Mitchell supplied a controversial version that takes many liberties with the text and includes modernized allusions and commentary relating to the Iraq War of 2003.[61] [62]

Later influence [edit]

Relationship to the Bible [edit]

Diverse themes, plot elements, and characters in the Hebrew Bible correlate with the Epic of Gilgamesh – notably, the accounts of the Garden of Eden, the advice from Ecclesiastes, and the Genesis flood narrative.

Garden of Eden [edit]

The parallels between the stories of Enkidu/Shamhat and Adam/Eve have been long recognized by scholars.[63] [64] In both, a human is created from the soil past a god, and lives in a natural setting amongst the animals. He is introduced to a adult female who tempts him. In both stories the homo accepts food from the woman, covers his nakedness, and must leave his sometime realm, unable to render. The presence of a serpent that steals a institute of immortality from the hero after in the epic is another point of similarity. However, a major difference betwixt the 2 stories is that while Enkidu experiences regret regarding his seduction abroad from nature, this is but temporary: After being confronted past the god Shamash for beingness ungrateful, Enkidu recants and decides to requite the woman who seduced him his final approval earlier he dies. This is in contrast to Adam, whose fall from grace is largely portrayed purely as a punishment for disobeying God.

Advice from Ecclesiastes [edit]

Several scholars suggest direct borrowing of Siduri'due south advice by the author of Ecclesiastes.[65]

A rare proverb virtually the forcefulness of a triple-stranded rope, "a triple-stranded rope is non easily broken", is common to both books.[ citation needed ]

Noah's inundation [edit]

Andrew George submits that the Genesis overflowing narrative matches that in Gilgamesh and then closely that "few doubt" that it derives from a Mesopotamian account.[66] What is particularly noticeable is the fashion the Genesis flood story follows the Gilgamesh flood tale "point by point and in the same gild", even when the story permits other alternatives.[67] In a 2001 Torah commentary released on behalf of the Bourgeois Movement of Judaism, rabbinic scholar Robert Wexler stated: "The near likely assumption we can brand is that both Genesis and Gilgamesh drew their cloth from a mutual tradition well-nigh the flood that existed in Mesopotamia. These stories and so diverged in the retelling."[68] Ziusudra, Utnapishtim and Noah are the respective heroes of the Sumerian, Akkadian and biblical overflowing legends of the ancient Near Due east.

Additional biblical parallels [edit]

Matthias Henze suggests that Nebuchadnezzar's madness in the biblical Book of Daniel draws on the Epic of Gilgamesh. He claims that the author uses elements from the description of Enkidu to paint a sarcastic and mocking portrait of the male monarch of Babylon.[69]

Many characters in the Ballsy have mythical biblical parallels, almost notably Ninti, the Sumerian goddess of life, was created from Enki'southward rib to heal him subsequently he had eaten forbidden flowers. It is suggested that this story served as the ground for the story of Eve created from Adam's rib in the Book of Genesis.[70] Esther J. Hamori, in Echoes of Gilgamesh in the Jacob Story, also claims that the myth of Jacob and Esau is paralleled with the wrestling match betwixt Gilgamesh and Enkidu.[71]

Volume of Giants [edit]

Gilgamesh is mentioned in one version of The Book of Giants which is related to the Book of Enoch. The Volume of Giants version found at Qumran mentions the Sumerian hero Gilgamesh and the monster Humbaba with the Watchers and giants.[72]

Influence on Homer [edit]

Numerous scholars have drawn attention to various themes, episodes, and verses, indicating that the Epic of Gilgamesh had a substantial influence on both of the ballsy poems ascribed to Homer. These influences are detailed by Martin Litchfield West in The Eastward Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poetry and Myth.[73] According to Tzvi Abusch of Brandeis University, the poem "combines the power and tragedy of the Iliad with the wanderings and marvels of the Odyssey. It is a work of adventure, but is no less a meditation on some fundamental issues of human being."[74] Martin West, in "The East face of Helicon," speculates that the retentiveness of Gilgamesh would have reached the Greeks through a lost poem near Heracles.[37]

In popular culture [edit]

The Epic of Gilgamesh has inspired many works of literature, art, and music.[75] [76] Information technology was only after Globe War I that the Gilgamesh epic reached a modernistic audience, and only subsequently World State of war 2 that it was featured in a multifariousness of genres.[76]

See also [edit]

  • List of artifacts in biblical archaeology
  • List of characters in Epic of Gilgamesh
  • Babylonian literature
  • Cattle in religion
  • Sumerian creation myth
  • Sumerian literature

Notes [edit]

  1. ^ In 2008, manuscripts from the median Babylonian version found in Ugarit, written earlier the Standard version, already started with Sha naqba īmuru.[1] [3]

References [edit]

  1. ^ a b c Brandão 2020, p. 23.
  2. ^ "Gilgamesh". Random Business firm Webster'south Entire Dictionary.
  3. ^ Lins Brandão 2019, p. 21.
  4. ^ Krstovic, Jelena O., ed. (2005). Epic of Gilgamesh Classical and Medieval Literature Criticism. Vol. 74. Detroit, MI: Gale. ISBN978-0-7876-8021-3. OCLC 644697404.
  5. ^ a b Thrower, James (1980). The Alternative Tradition: A Study of Unbelief in the Aboriginal Earth. The Hague, Holland: Mouton Publishers.
  6. ^ Frankfort, Henri (1974) [1949]. "Affiliate VII: Mesopotamia: The Good Life". Earlier Philosophy: The Intellectual Adventure of Ancient Man, an essay on speculative idea in the aboriginal nigh East. Penguin. p. 226. OCLC 225040700.
  7. ^ Temple, Robert (1991). He who saw everything: a poetry translation of the Epic of Gilgamesh. Random Century Grouping Ltd. pp. viii–nine.
  8. ^ a b Dalley 2000, p. 45.
  9. ^ Dalley 2000, pp. 41–42.
  10. ^ Mitchell, T.C. (1988). The Bible in the British Museum. The British Museum Press. p. 70.
  11. ^ a b c George 2003.
  12. ^ Abusch, T. (1993). "Gilgamesh's Request and Siduri's Deprival. Part I: The Meaning of the Dialogue and Its Implications for the History of the Epic". The Tablet and the Ringlet; Well-nigh Eastern Studies in Honor of William W. Hallo. CDL Printing. pp. 1–14.
  13. ^ George, Andrew R. (2008). "Shattered tablets and tangled threads: Editing Gilgamesh, and so and at present". Aramazd. Armenian Periodical of Near Eastern Studies. 3: 11. Retrieved 12 September 2018.
  14. ^ a b George 2003, p. ii.
  15. ^ "The New York Times". The New York Times. forepart folio. 22 December 1872.
  16. ^ a b c George, Andrew R. (2008). "Shattered tablets and tangled threads: Editing Gilgamesh, and so and now". Aramazd. Armenian Journal of Near Eastern Studies. 3: seven–30. Retrieved 12 September 2018.
  17. ^ Smith, George (3 December 1872). "The Chaldean Account of the Deluge". Sacred-Texts.com . Retrieved 27 March 2020.
  18. ^ a b George 2003, p. 11.
  19. ^ a b Lins Brandão 2019, p. 11.
  20. ^ "Offset lines of oldest epic poem found". The Independent. 16 Nov 1998. Retrieved sixteen September 2019.
  21. ^ Evans, Barry. "It Was a Night and Stormy Dark". North Declension Journal . Retrieved 16 September 2019.
  22. ^ Dalley 2000, pp. 40–41.
  23. ^ a b Bevan Hurley (27 July 2021). "United states seizes Epic of Gilgamesh tablet, considered one of world's oldest works of literature, from Hobby Lobby". Independent United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland.
  24. ^ Clark, Dartunorro; Williams, Pete (27 July 2021). "Justice Department seizes rare, ancient tablet illegally auctioned to Hobby Anteroom". NBC News . Retrieved 28 September 2021. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  25. ^ "Gilgamesh tablet: US regime accept ownership of artefact". BBC News. 28 July 2021. Retrieved 28 September 2021. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  26. ^ Helsel, Phil (23 September 2021). "Ancient Gilgamesh tablet taken from Republic of iraq and bought by Hobby Lobby is returned". NBC News . Retrieved 28 September 2021. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  27. ^ a b c Brandão 2015, p. 105.
  28. ^ Brandão 2015, p. 120.
  29. ^ Lins Brandão 2019, p. 15.
  30. ^ Brandão 2015, p. 105, 106.
  31. ^ Tigay 1982, pp. 23, 218, 224, 238.
  32. ^ a b Brandão 2015, p. 106.
  33. ^ George 2003, pp. xxvii–viii.
  34. ^ Lins Brandão 2019, p. 10.
  35. ^ Lins Brandão 2019, p. 12.
  36. ^ Lins Brandão 2019, p. 13.
  37. ^ a b Lins Brandão 2019, p. 22.
  38. ^ Lins Brandão 2019, p. fourteen.
  39. ^ Lins Brandão 2019, p. 17.
  40. ^ a b Lins Brandão 2019, p. xviii.
  41. ^ Lins Brandão 2019, p. xix.
  42. ^ Lins Brandão 2019, p. 24.
  43. ^ Lins Brandão 2019, p. 20.
  44. ^ a b Al-Rawi, F. North. H.; George, A. R. (2014). "Dorsum to the Cedar Woods: The Beginning and Stop of Tablet Five of the Standard Babylonian Ballsy of Gilgameš" (PDF). Journal of Cuneiform Studies. 66: 69–ninety. doi:x.5615/jcunestud.66.2014.0069. JSTOR 10.5615/jcunestud.66.2014.0069. S2CID 161833317.
  45. ^ Foster 2003.
  46. ^ George 2003, p. xxx.
  47. ^ George 2003, p. 98. "'There is a plant that looks like a box-thorn, it has prickles like a dogrose, and will prick one who plucks it. But if you tin possess this plant, y'all'll exist again every bit y'all were in your youth.' ... Said Gilgamesh to him: 'This plant, Ur-shanabi, is the "Plant of Heartbeat", with it a man can regain his vigour. To Uruk-the-Sheepfold I volition have it, to an ancient I will feed some and put the plant to the test!'"
  48. ^ Dalley 2000, p. 42.
  49. ^ Maier, John R. (1997). Gilgamesh: A reader. Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. p. 136. ISBN978-0-86516-339-three.
  50. ^ Patton, Laurie Fifty.; Doniger, Wendy (1996). Myth and Method. Academy of Virginia Printing. p. 306. ISBN978-0-8139-1657-6.
  51. ^ Kovacs, Maureen (1989). The Ballsy of Gilgamesh. University of Stanford Press. p. 117. ISBN978-0-8047-1711-3.
  52. ^ van Driel, G.; Krispijn, Th. J. H.; Stol, M.; Veenhof, K. R., eds. (1982). Zikir Šumim: Assyriological Studies Presented to F.R. Kraus on the Occasion of His Seventieth Altogether. p. 131. ISBN978-90-6258-126-9.
  53. ^ George 2003, pp. 101–126.
  54. ^ Brandão 2015, p. 119.
  55. ^ Abusch, T. Gilgamesh'southward Request and Siduri'southward Deprival. Part I: The Significant of the Dialogue and Its Implications for the History of the Epic. |eleven.05 MB The Tablet and the Scroll; About Eastern Studies in Honor of William W. Hallo, 1–xiv. Retrieved 9 September 2013.
  56. ^ George 2003, pp. 141–208.
  57. ^ Katz, Dina (1993). Gilgamesh and Akka. Brill. p. 14. ISBN978-90-72371-67-six.
  58. ^ Kramer, Samuel Noah (1961). Sumerian Mythology: A Study of Spiritual and Literary Achievement in the Tertiary Millennium B.C.: Revised Edition. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Academy of Pennsylvania Printing. pp. xxx–41. ISBN978-0-8122-1047-vii.
  59. ^ Helle, Sophus (2021). Gilgamesh: A New Translation of the Ancient Ballsy. Yale University Press. p. 144. Taha Baqir published the first Arabic translation of Gilgamesh in 1962
  60. ^ Mawr, Bryn (21 April 2004). "Bryn Mawr Classical Review 2004.04.21". Bryn Mawr Classical Review . Retrieved 18 October 2017.
  61. ^ Jarman, Mark (i January 2005). "When the Low-cal Came on: The Epic Gilgamesh". The Hudson Review. 58 (2): 329–34. JSTOR 30044781.
  62. ^ Mitchell, Stephen (2010) [2004]. Gilgamesh: A New English Version. Simon and Schuster. ISBN978-0-7432-6169-ii . Retrieved 9 Nov 2012.
  63. ^ Gmirkin, Russell (2006). Berossus and Genesis, Manetho and Exodus. Continuum. p. 103.
  64. ^ Blenkinsopp, Joseph (2004). Treasures old and new. Eerdmans. pp. 93–95.
  65. ^ Van Der Torn, Karel (2000). "Did Ecclesiastes copy Gilgamesh?". Bible Review. Vol. 16. pp. 22ff. Retrieved eighteen Oct 2017.
  66. ^ George 2003, pp. 70ff.
  67. ^ Rendsburg, Gary (2007). "The Biblical overflowing story in the low-cal of the Gilgamesh inundation account," in Gilgamesh and the world of Assyria, eds Azize, J & Weeks, N. Peters, p. 117.
  68. ^ Wexler, Robert (2001). Aboriginal About Eastern Mythology.
  69. ^ Leiden, Brill (1999). The Madness of King Nebuchadnezzar...
  70. ^ Meagher, Robert Emmet (1995). The meaning of Helen: in search of an ancient icon . United States: Bolchazy-Carducci Pubs (IL). ISBN978-0-86516-510-6.
  71. ^ Hamori, Esther J. (Winter 2011). "Echoes of Gilgamesh in the Jacob Story". Journal of Biblical Literature. 130 (4): 625–42. doi:10.2307/23488271. JSTOR 23488271. S2CID 161293144.
  72. ^ "Old Testament Pseudepigrapha – Just another WordPress @ St Andrews site".
  73. ^ West, Martin Litchfield (2003) [1997]. The East Face of Helicon: West Asiatic Elements in Greek Poesy and Myth. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 334–402. ISBN978-0-19-815221-vii. OCLC 441880596.
  74. ^ Abusch, Tzvi (December 2001). "The Evolution and Meaning of the Epic of Gilgamesh: An Interpretive Essay". Periodical of the American Oriental Society. 121 (4): 614–22. doi:10.2307/606502. JSTOR 606502.
  75. ^ Ziolkowski, Theodore (2011). Gilgamesh Amongst Us: Modern Encounters With the Ancient Epic. Cornell Univ Pr. ISBN978-0-8014-5035-8.
  76. ^ a b Ziolkowski, Theodore (1 November 2011). "Gilgamesh: An Epic Obsession". Berfrois. Retrieved 18 October 2017.

Sources [edit]

  • The Epic of Gilgamesh: The Babylonian Ballsy Verse form and Other Texts in Akkadian and Sumerian . Translated by Andrew R. George (reprinted ed.). London, England: Penguin Books. 2003 [1999]. ISBN0-14-044919-1. OCLC 901129328.
  • The Epic of Gilgamesh. Translated by Benjamin R. Foster. New York, NY: Westward.Westward. Norton & Company. 2001. ISBN978-0-393-97516-1.
  • Dalley, Stephanie, ed. (2000). Myths from Mesopotamia: Creation, the Inundation, Gilgamesh, and Others. Oxford University Press. ISBN978-0-xix-953836-2.
  • Tigay, Jeffrey H. (1982). The Development of the Gilgamesh Epic. University of Pennsylvania Press. ISBN978-0-8122-7805-seven.
  • Sin-léqi-unnínni, ed. (2020) [2017]. Ele que o abismo viu (in Brazilian Portuguese). Translated by Jacyntho Lins Brandão (ane ed.). Autêntica. p. 320. ISBN978-85-513-0283-v.

Further reading [edit]

Translations
  • Jastrow, Morris; Clay, Albert Tobias (2016). An Former Babylonian Version of the Gilgamesh Ballsy: On the Basis of Recently Discovered Texts. Cambridge Library Collection – Archaeology. ISBN978-1-108-08127-6.
  • Jastrow, K.; Clay, A. (1920). An Old Babylonian Version of the Gilgamesh Epic: On the Basis of Recently Discovered Texts. Yale University Press.
  • Parpola, Simo (1997). The Standard Babylonian, Ballsy of Gilgamesh. Mikko Luuko and Kalle Fabritius. The Neo-Assyrian Text Corpus Project. ISBN978-951-45-7760-4. : (Book 1) in the original Akkadian cuneiform and transliteration; commentary and glossary are in English
  • Sandars, North. Thou. (2006). The Ballsy of Gilgamesh. Penguin Epics, Penguin Classics. London: Penguin. ISBN978-0-xiv-102628-2. : re-impress of the Penguin Classic translation (in prose) past N. K. Sandars 1960 (ISBN 0-fourteen-044100-X) without the introduction.
  • Shin, Shifra (2000). Alilot Gilgamesh (Tales of Gilgamesh). Tel Aviv: Am Oved. – an accommodation for young adults, translated directly to Hebrew from the original Akkadian language past Shin Shifra
Versions
  • Ferry, David (1993). Gilgamesh: A New Rendering in English Verse. New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. ISBN978-0-374-52383-1.
  • Jackson, Danny (1997). The Epic of Gilgamesh. Wauconda, IL: Bolchazy-Carducci Publishers. ISBN978-0-86516-352-2.
  • Mason, Herbert (2003) [1970, 1972]. Gilgamesh: A Verse Narrative. Boston, MA: Mariner Books. ISBN978-0-618-27564-ix. Starting time published in 1970 by Houghton Mifflin; Mentor Books paperback published 1972.
Assay
  • Best, Robert (1999). Noah's Ark and the Ziusudra Ballsy. Eisenbrauns. ISBN978-0-9667840-i-5.
  • Damrosch, David (2007). The Cached Book: The Loss and Rediscovery of the Not bad Epic of Gilgamesh . Henry Holt and Co. ISBN978-0-8050-8029-two.
  • Jacobsen, Thorkild (1976). The Treasures of Darkness, A History of Mesopotamian Religion. Yale University Press. ISBN978-0-300-01844-8.
  • Kluger, Rivkah (1991). The Gilgamesh Epic: A Psychological Study of a Modern Ancient Hero. Daimon. ISBN978-3-85630-523-nine.
  • Brandão, Jacyntho Lins (2015). "Como se faz um herói: every bit linhas de força do poema de Gilgámesh". Eastward-hum (in Brazilian Portuguese). Belo Horizonte. 8 (i): 104–121. doi:10.11248/ehum.v8i1.1545 (inactive 28 February 2022). Archived from the original on xix July 2020. {{cite journal}}: CS1 maint: DOI inactive equally of February 2022 (link)
  • Lins Brandão, J. (2019). "A "Epopeia Gilgamesh" é uma epopeia?". ArtCultura (in Brazilian Portuguese). Uberlândia. 21 (38): ix–24. doi:10.14393/artc-v21-n38-2019-50156. S2CID 202426524. Archived from the original on 17 December 2021.

External links [edit]

  • Translations of the legends of Gilgamesh in the Sumerian language can exist found in Black, J.A., Cunningham, G., Fluckiger-Bell-ringer, Eastward, Robson, Eastward., and Zólyomi, Thou., The Electronic Text Corpus of Sumerian Literature, Oxford 1998–
    • Gilgamesh and Huwawa, version A
    • Gilgamesh and Huwawa, version B
    • Gilgamesh and the Bull of Heaven
    • Gilgamesh and Aga
    • Gilgamesh, Enkidu and the under world
    • The death of Gilgamesh
  • An Onetime Babylonian Version of the Gilgamesh Ballsy past Anonymous at Project Gutenberg, edited by Morris Jastrow, translated by Albert T. Clay
  • The Epic of Gilgamesh, Complete Academic Translation by R. Campbell Thompson
  • The Epic of Gilgamesh by Kovacs, M.G.

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Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Epic_of_Gilgamesh

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